The Dos and Donts of What Are the Best Research Paper Writing Service

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Inclusion For Students With Special Needs - 1512 Words

In the Education discipline, there has been a long debate for many years over the topic of inclusion. Inclusive education is defined as students with disabilities, being supported in age appropriate general education classrooms, at their home school, and receiving specialized instruction as needed per the student’s IEP (Individualized Education Program) within the general education class curriculum and activities. Inclusion is there to help student with special needs in attending school regularly with their friends and peers while being accommodated as needed, per their IEP, to help achieve the student’s academic goals and be successful. The topic of inclusion has been researched for many years. Inclusion will continue to be researched, so that faculty and teachers at elementary schools can continue to better themselves in inclusion practices for students with special need, and also to continue to progress towards full inclusion of these students with special needs i n a general education classroom. Since there is a lot in the news about inclusion in schools across the U.S., for this essay, I began my search about inclusion in the Education discipline by finding scholarly articles on the subject, along with other online news sources concerning this subject in my area of study. By doing so, I hope to have a better understanding of inclusion than I have already attained, so that I am better able to create possible ideas for topics to write future essays throughout thisShow MoreRelatedInclusion For Special Needs Students Essay1633 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction There are a need and an active pursuance in including culturally sensitive curriculum in today’s classroom. However, there is still a lack of inclusion for special needs students in general classroom settings. My interest in this topic stems from my major in EC-6, Special Education. My goal is to work with students with special needs. It is important to integrate students with disabilities in classrooms with students without disabilities. By allowing students with disabilities to haveRead MoreInclusion For Special Needs Students Essay1630 Words   |  7 PagesThere are a need and an active pursuance in including culturally sensitive curriculum in today’s classroom. However, there is still a lack of inclusion for special needs students in general classroom settings. My interest in this topic stems from my major in EC-6, Special Education. My goal is to work with students with special needs. It is important to integrate students with disabilities in classrooms with stude nts without disabilities. This early introduction of differences among students will furtherRead MoreInclusion Of Special Needs For Students With Disabilities1173 Words   |  5 Pagessystem to include students with disabilities, there has being an ongoing research topic of inclusion. Inclusion, in this area, means the full inclusion of students with special needs in the general education classroom. The research and the debates about the issue of whether or not there should be full inclusion of Special Education students in all general education classrooms in all public schools throughout the United States rages on. The number of students with special needs that are included inRead MoreInclusion Of Special Needs For Students With Disabilities Essay1174 Words   |  5 Pagessystem to include students with disabilities, there has being an ongoing research topic of inclusion. Inclusion, in this area, means the full inclusion of students with special needs in the general education cla ssroom . The research and the debates about the issue of whether or not there should be full inclusion of Special Education students in all general education classrooms in all public schools throughout the United States rages on. The number of students with special needs that are includedRead MoreThe Impact Of Inclusion Of Students With Special Needs1772 Words   |  8 PagesOverview Through this study, I seek to explore the phenomenon of how inclusion of students with special needs is understood, implemented and enforced across private schools in the Emirate of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The purpose of this study is to better understand, through interviewing private school administrators and policy makers in Dubai’s education sector and by analyzing policy and legal documents, what inclusion means to these key agents which in turn effects its enforcement (byRead MoreThe Importance Of Inclusion In Education721 Words   |  3 PagesInclusion In a perfect world, everyone would be accepted just because we are all human beings, but, that is not the case. Children with special needs have been subjected to everything from separate classes and schools to institutions and facilities for years. With the passing of laws children with special needs were taken into consideration and the need for inclusion was brought forth. Inclusion is when all students learn, participate, and contribute to all aspects of the learning process. What isRead MoreThe Inclusion of Children with Special Needs in a Normal Classroom972 Words   |  4 PagesCurrently, children with special needs are educated in a designated classroom or included into a general classroom. Inclusion is educating special-needs students in a classroom with non-special needs students. Debate about inclusion or separate classrooms for children with disabilities has been a topic of discussion in the educational school setting for decades. Supporters of inclusion believe special-needs students, teachers, and non-disabled students do better academically and socially in a diverseRead MoreA Brief Note On Education And Individual Education870 Words   |  4 Pageseducation and individual education programs for students? I do not believe that we, as educators, can create a â€Å"one size fits all† education plan for special needs students. When it comes to a student with disabilities educational placement and the consideration of inclusion, I believe that the educational placement decision should be determined on an individual student basis. There are many advantages, as well as, some disadvantages of inclusion for students with and without disabilities. BeforeRead MoreThe Class Room By William Wright G000516811318 Words   |  6 PagesGeneral Purpose: Inclusion in the Class Room Specific Purpose: To persuade my readers that inclusion is important in the class room. Central Idea: Institutions should have programs for special needs children to integrate them in classrooms with regular students. . INTRODUCTION I. Attention Material A. Models to show how students with assistance can be measured 1. Some teachers think that inclusions are a plus in the class rooms. 2. Other teachers think that think inclusion would be more workRead MorePartial Inclusion In Special Education1543 Words   |  7 PagesPartial Inclusion is a new and highly researched cell in the great, big ecosystem of Special Education. Just as the ecosystem is made up of many parts, so is that cell: Partial Inclusion is not just one big idea but many little ideas working together to create something new and beautiful. The present argument in the world of Special Education is whether Full Inclusion or Partial Inclusion is better, and who each will benefit. Full Inclusion is when all students--students with special needs and general

Micro Economics Cross Categiory Analysis

Question: Describe about the Micro Economics for Cross Categiory Analysis. Answer: Discussion Price elasticity of a good can be described as effect of change in price on the demand for that particular good. As per the law of demand, customers tend to purchase less when the price of the product rises (Walras, 2013). Thus, increase in price decreases the demand of the product. A good can be elastic or inelastic in nature depending upon the change in demand due to the change in price. A good having price elasticity have higher percentage change in demand than the percentage change in the price. On the other hand, a good is price inelastic when the percentage change in demand is lower than the percentage change in its price (Stlouisfed.org. 2016). One of the examples of the elastic good and inelastic good for the household is motor vehicles and electricity respectively. Motor vehicle can be considered as an elastic good as the customers tends to reduce the demand for the product when its price increases. The good is not a necessary good and thus, people tend to consume less when the price increases (Gordon, Goldfarb Li, 2013). On the other hand, electricity is a necessary commodity and thus do not affect the demand much when the price changes. References Gordon, B. R., Goldfarb, A., Li, Y. (2013). Does price elasticity vary with economic growth? A cross-category analysis.Journal of Marketing Research,50(1), 4-23. Stlouisfed.org,. (2016).Elasticity of Demand, Economic Lowdown Podcast Series | St. Louis Fed Education Resources.Stlouisfed.org. Retrieved 27 November 2016, from https://www.stlouisfed.org/education/economic-lowdown-podcast-series/episode-16-elasticity-of-demand Walras, L. (2013).Elements of pure economics. Routledge.

Native American Historical and Political Development Essay Example

Native American Historical and Political Development Essay Name: Instructor: Course: Date: We will write a custom essay sample on Native American Historical and Political Development specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Native American Historical and Political Development specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Native American Historical and Political Development specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Native American Historical and Political Development Native American pottery is a form of art that has existed for at least 700 centuries within the Americas. Pottery can be defined as any objects that are made of fired clay ceramics. Ceramics are commonly used as practical cooking vessels, serving and preservation vessels, burial urns, sculptures, musical instruments, ceremonial items, censers, and countless other art forms. Since they are resilient, ceramic items have been a vital source of information in learning more about Pre-Columbian indigenous cultures. The earliest ceramics discovered in the Americas were discovered in the lower Amazon Basin around the Caverna de Pedra Pintada areas that were dated back to about 5,000 years (Ferguson et al 13). Some of the shards at this location were tempered using mollusk shells that allowed the ceramics to be carbon dated. From the engravings, it was evident that the first ceramic-making cultures were shellfish-gatherers and fishers. Ceramics next surfaced across northern South America and then later in the western part of South America. As of this period (4530BCE), the primary purpose of ceramic objects was to store food (Ferguson et al 23). Historical background of pottery and ceramics The communities of Mesoamerica and South America were generally modern with the European Christian period. Both tribes were quickly eliminated by the Spanish invasion following on the journeys of discovery done by Columbus. The vanquishers instantly found themselves in disagreements with the native inhabitants. The clergy sought to convert people to Christianity, and they used less aggressive techniques entrenched in religion in order to destroy a whole culture gradually. The two principal empires, the Aztecs of Mesoamerica and the Incas of Peru exhibited agricultural activities and promoted architecture and art. The monuments discovered later were extremely extraordinary even though they were developed by highly primitive societies (Ferguson et al 21). Early Pre-Columbian Civilizations Several pre-Columbian societies existed over several periods, and they served to transmit the skill of pottery and that of making ceramics to the next generation, up to what it is today. Analyzing the lineage and progress of these communities from the past to the present will give more insight on their unique skills, artwork and cultural practices. The Chavin tribe that existed around 1400 to 300 BC was perhaps the most ancient tribe to exist in America (Schurr et al 177). Evidence of pottery and other crafts existed, but these were mostly limited to the temple galleries indicating that they held a religious significance. By 2000 BCE, pottery and ceramic making was popular in Central America, although modern techniques and machinery such as the potter’s wheel and glazing were not used. The two main methods of fashioning pots were to use bare hands or made inside molds and finished using fine polychrome (Ferguson et al 15). The Moche tribe that came up from 100-700 AD was more aggressive in their ceramics and pottery skills. Their pottery was immensely influential in illustrating different societal figures such as priests, lords and even warriors. Through these discovered pottery, most archeologists have been able to study the level of complexity of the Moche society. These artists engaged in documenting pre-Columbian accomplishments through realism and pictorials. There were even instances of erotic pottery. The Nazca tribe came up from 200to 800 AD to introduce aspects of color and complex designs to pottery in a fashion that contrasted the restrained styles typical of Moche ceramics (Schurr et al 178). The last regime to propagate the pottery tradition significantly was the Huari-Tiahuanaco hegemony that created pottery characterized by audacious designs, richer colors and solid constructions. This pottery style ultimately overshadowed the other earlier forms of pottery making to become the most domi nant type that spread throughout most of America. Many pre-Columbian civilizations set up permanent urban communities where they practiced agriculture and developed intricate societal hierarchies. The oldest mound complex in the Americas, the Watson Brake and other archaic sites were constructed by pre-ceramic societies. Throughout the various studies among different cultures and different periods, it is notable that each society had some pottery or ceramics that they created, especially in cases where the society was involved in agriculture. The Native Americans developed their own techniques of pottery and ceramics in a manner similar to that of other societies throughout the world. Many of the Native American communities used ceramics and pottery even before the Europeans first inhabited the Americas. While some hunter-gatherer tribes did not delve so much into this unique pottery, the communities that engaged in farming had various uses for the Native American ceramics (Ferguson et al 67). As the Native Americans were relocated across the continent by Europeans, they were able to transport their Native American ceramics on the journey. Many of the communities ultimately appeared to have lost their indigenous pottery as they were pressed further away from their initial native regions. The southwestern Indians were the most advantageous group in that they were able to salvage most of their artwork including pottery and other ceramics. Some of their striking ceramic works comprised of wedding vases with double spouts and other colorful ceramics that had distinctive designs. Various communities had their own techniques and patterns of creating the Native American ceramics (Fash Luja?n 18). Some of the methods including kiln firing the pottery but almost each community had its own unique pattern and method of finishing the ceramics (Ferguson et al 34). The common aspect among all the communities was that their ceramics were all hand made. Even presently, the few existing Native Americans still hold the ability to create ceramics using their skillful hands. Most of these artists have become very famous, as their works on Native American culture have been displayed in famous galleries and shows. Therefore, while most indigenous Indians lost their land during the relocation process, they were still able to preserve much of their traditions and skills including Native American pottery (Kampen-O’Riley 37). The decorative ceramic ornaments and other pottery items carried with them a vast amount of knowledge on the social and religious values within the pre-Columbian societies. These people had transcended from the essential subsistence life into complex and creative groups within the harsh life of the wildness. These pre-Columbian societies held some of the initial sources of early inventiveness, imagination, and functionality. Apart from religious and social significance, the ceramics and pottery were very important in running the economy through trading activities and negotiation sessions among communities (Ferguson et al 345). Colonization of the New World and loss of Pre-Columbian Culture Pottery and other works of art largely disappeared after the entry of Europeans into Native America. The loss of a larger part of the Western hemisphere led to several administrative, physical and cultural changes for the Native Americans who inhabited the land. The religious and cultural arrogance exhibited by the Europeans was largely to blame for the great disappearance of most elements of pre-Columbian cultures (Kampen-O’Riley 22). Settlers who inhabited the Americas failed to see anything of value in pre-Columbian America and instead sought to impose their own traditions, cultures and norms onto the natives. This was a major cause of the loss of cultural practices such as pottery. Concerning the loss of cultural elements among the Native Americans, Europeans played a major role in ensuring they were eliminated from any historical records. Through their own cultural arrogance, Europeans were able to dismiss the historical existence of Native Americans as being recreated and falsified. To that extent, they considered these natives as having lived in an unhistorical state. Disease outbreaks were another major cause of cultural loss (Bulmer-Thomas et al 18). While Europeans were used to keeping their livestock in close quarters, the Native Americans quickly contracted and died from epidemics and this thinned out the number of artists that could pass on the tradition of making ceramics and other similar products (Ferguson et al 11). Significance of Ceramics and Pottery Religious importance When evaluating non-western art, it is imperative to bear in mind that the objects being viewed were created for exceptionally precise functions. While art professionals normally discuss these works of art in terms of strictly aesthetics, at a stage, it becomes necessary to comprehend the significance of the works of art to the communities who created them (Young-Sa?nchez Denise 16). Almost without exemption, Pre-Columbian art has a heavy religious significance naturally. The ceramics and pottery that have been conserved were mostly temple architecture and items, burial art, and artifacts from sports events that were ultimately religious. Ordinarily, placing ethnographic objects in an inert museum environment makes people forget their original utilities. The Maya sculptor who cautiously molded away on a lump of clay to create a figure did not expect it to be locked away in an art gallery. When people assess these artifacts, detached from their intended place and time, they conclude that they lacked religious significance. Ancient religious occurrences can only be inferred from archaeological materials (Young-Sa?nchez Denise 15). Several clay sculptures discovered in graves may offer little or no proof that they were relevant in religious occasions during the Pre-Classic periods of Ticoman and Zacatenco. It is likely, though, that baked earth figures of females were supposed to symbolize an agricultural idol, a deity of the crops. Two-headed clay figurines unearthed at Tlatilco had a high likelihood of depicting a paranormal being. The same conclusion can be said of the clay idols of a fire god shaped as an old man. The pyramid of Cuicuilco near Mexico is one of the most fascinating monuments that may also have religious meaning. The monument illustrated the main aspects of the Mexican pyramids and this made it seem likely to be a religious shrine, signified by a temple erected on the platform and enclosed by tombs (Young-Sa?nchez Denise 11). Such architecture would have obviously been supervised and organized by several priests. An example is the preoccupation with the afterlife and death itself. Therefore, the ceramics developed by the societies included skulls and devil figurines signified religious activities using these ceramics. The religious significance of pre-Columbian ceramics, that is presently accepted, was initially misinterpreted. In fact, their secular value was the main criteria used when assessing them and this made most of them fail the value test. For many years, Mexican cultivators had been discovering antique ceramic pots and other physical artifacts while cultivating their farms. In the past, collectors considered them useless and even amusing. Because of the low monetary value, they were usually destroyed and discarded. Ordinary household uses Among Pre-Columbian tribes, the vessels used by most households were mainly made of earthenware. These vessels were created in various traditional forms, including globular, ovoid, and cylindrical and double-chambered forms with diverse handles and spouts. These artifacts were used as household utensils, funerary objects, cooking pots, and ritual objects and water jugs. Their form, purpose, and embellishment differentiated the vessels amongst pre-Columbian communities. Zoomorphic and anthropomorphic vessels naturally suggested ritual and funerary use were decorated by more unique and complicated adornments than household earthenware. Although many cultures borrow different elements from each other, each culture developed their vessels having their own particulars and iconography. While most artifacts can be easily categorized as having religious or household significance, some are more difficult to place. Stirrup spout vessels were the main ceramics used that consisted of a handle, and a spout. The immense numbers of existing stirrup spout vessels were suspected to be necessary for funerary purposes. However, the evidence of the wear and tear pointed towards utilitarian purposes within the household (Young-Sa?nchez Denise 24). Conclusion The Pre-Columbian era was marked with a significant contribution by several tribes to the archeological pool that mainly concentrated on ceramics and pottery. The lack of proper writing systems among Pre-Columbian cultures prompted the development of pottery and ceramics as a channel through which history could be recorded. Through these artifacts, the tribes could express and transfer their knowledge to the rest of the world surrounding astronomy, philosophy, cosmology and even religion. The political influences that interfered with the development of these civilizations may have been inconsiderate and unfair but their actions were crucial in dispersing these cultures to different parts of the world where they would have otherwise not reached. Work Cited Bulmer-Thomas, V, John H. Coatsworth, and Conde R. Corte?s. The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print. Fash, William L, Luja?n L. Lo?pez. The Art of Urbanism: How Mesoamerican Kingdoms Represented Themselves in Architecture and Imagery. Washington, D.C: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2009. Print. Ferguson, Jeffrey R.; Siegel, Peter E.; Descantes, Christophe; Glascock, Michael D. Pre-Columbian Pottery in the West Indies: Compositional Change in Context. Journal of Caribbean Archeology. 2008. Kampen-O’Riley, Michael. Art Beyond the West: The Arts of Africa, India and Southeast Asia, China, Japan and Korea, the Pacific, and the Americas. New York: H.N. Abrams, 2002. Print. Schurr, Theodore G. Coastal Waves and Island Hopping: A Genetic View of Caribbean Prehistory and New World Colonization. Island Shores, Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Biological Approaches to the Pre-Columbian Settlement of the Caribbean. 2010: 177-197. Print Young-Sa?nchez, Margaret, Denise P. Schaan. Marajo?: Ancient Ceramics from the Mouth of the Amazon. Denver, CO: Mayer Center for Pre-Columbian Spanish Colonial Art at the Denver Art Museum, 2011. Print.

NYC Vital Records Births, Deaths and Marriages

NYC Vital Records Births, Deaths and Marriages Learn how and where to obtain birth, marriage, and death certificates and records from the five boroughs of New York City, including the dates for which NYC vital records are available, where they are located, and links to online New York City vital records databases. If you are looking for births, marriages, or deaths in New York, but outside of New York City, see New York State Vital Records. New York City Vital Records Division of Vital RecordsNew York City Department of Health125 Worth Street, CN4, Rm 133New York, NY 10013Phone:  (212) 788-4520 What You Need to Know:  Check or money order should be made payable to  New York City Department of Health.  Personal checks are accepted. Call or visit the website to verify current fees. Web site: New York City Vital Records New York City Birth Records Dates:  From  1910 at city level; some earlier records at borough level Cost of copy:  $15.00 (includes a 2-year search) Comments:  The vital records office has birth records since 1910 for those occurring in the Boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Queens, and Staten Island. For birth records prior to 1910, write to Archives Division, Department of Records and Information Services, 31 Chambers Street, New York, NY 10007. Online ordering is preferred (through VitalChek)  and processed within 24 hours. However, this incurs both a processing fee, in addition to a shipping fee. Applications sent via postal mail must be notarized  and the processing time is at least 30 days, but there is not an additional processing fee. You can also order in-person for a $2.75 security fee in addition to the certificate fee. Birth records  prior to 1910  are available through the  municipal archives: Manhattan (from 1847), Brooklyn (from 1866), Bronx (from 1898), Queens (from 1898) and Richmond/Staten Island (from 1898).  The fee for online and mail orders is $15 per certificate. You can also visit in person and research in the microfilmed vital records for free.  Certified copies of identified records may be ordered over-the-counter and will be printed while you wait. The fee is $11.00 per copy. Self-service copying is not available for vital records.   Online: New York Births and Christenings, 1640–1962 (name index to selected records) New York City Death Records: Dates:  From  1949 at city level; some earlier records at borough level Cost of copy:  $15.00 (includes a 2-year search) Comments:  The vital records office has death records since 1949 for those occurring in the Boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Queens and Staten Island. For death records prior to 1949, write to Archives Division, Department of Records and Information Services, 31 Chambers Street, New York, NY 10007.  Online ordering is preferred (through VitalChek)  and processed within 24 hours. However, this incurs both a processing fee, in addition to a shipping fee. Applications sent via postal mail must be notarized  and the processing time is at least 30 days.* Death records  prior to 1949  are available through the  municipal archives: Manhattan (from 1795, with a few gaps), Brooklyn (from 1847, with a few gaps), Bronx (from 1898), Queens (from 1898) and Richmond/Staten Island (from 1898). The fee for online and mail orders is $15 per certificate. You can also visit in person and research in the microfilmed vital records for free.  Certified copies of identified records may be ordered over-the-counter and will be printed while you wait. The fee is $11.00 per copy. Self-service copying is not available for vital records.   New York City Marriage Records Dates:  From 1930 Cost of copy:  $15.00 (includes a 1-year search); add $1 for a second-year search, and $0.50 for each additional year Comments:  Marriage records from 1996 to present can be obtained in person from any office of the New York City Clerk. Marriage records from 1930 to 1995 can only be obtained from the Manhattan Office. Marriage records for marriages that took place in the past 50 years are only available to the bride, groom, or their legal representative. You can also obtain a marriage certificate with written, authorized notice from either spouse or by presenting the original death certificates if both spouses are deceased. Bronx Borough:City Clerks OfficeSupreme Court Building851 Grand Concourse, Room B131Bronx, NY 10451 Brooklyn Borough:City Clerks OfficeBrooklyn Municipal Building210 Joralemon Street, Room 205Brooklyn, NY 11201 Manhattan Borough:City Clerks Office141 Worth St.New York, NY 10013 Queens Borough:City Clerks OfficeBorough Hall Building120-55 Queens Boulevard, Ground Floor, Room G-100Kew Gardens, NY 11424 Staten Island Borough (no longer called Richmond):City Clerks OfficeBorough Hall Building10 Richmond Terrace, Room 311, (enter at Hyatt Street/Stuyvesant Place intersection entrance).Staten Island, NY 10301 Marriage  records  prior to 1930  are available through the  municipal archives: Manhattan (from  June  1847, with a few gaps), Brooklyn (from 1866), Bronx (from 1898), Queens (from 1898) and Richmond/Staten Island  (from 1898). New York City Divorce Records Dates:  From 1847 Cost of copy:  $30.00 Comments:  Divorce records for New York City are under the jurisdiction of the New York State Department of Health, which holds divorce records from  January 1963.Application for a Record of Divorce or Dissolution For divorce records from  1847-1963, contact the County Clerk in the county where the divorce was granted. Keep in mind, however, that New York divorce files are sealed for one hundred years. A few divorce decrees granted by the Court of Chancery from 1787-1847 are available in the  New York State Archives.

50 Handy Expressions About Hands

50 Handy Expressions About Hands 50 Handy Expressions About Hands 50 Handy Expressions About Hands By Mark Nichol Do you know all these expressions about hands? Most of them are cliches, but using just about any cliche is forgivable if you do so in a fresh way, or to add a note of humor. 1. â€Å"All hands on deck,† from the traditional nautical command for every sailor to report for duty, refers to the necessity of everyone involved to lend a hand, or assist. 2. To bite the hand that feeds you is to be hostile to someone who has been kind to you. 3. To be a dab hand is, in British English, to be an expert. 4. â€Å"The devil makes work for idle hands† is a proverb that means that inactive people are susceptible to the temptation to do wrong. 5. To know something firsthand is to be directly familiar with the facts. 6. To force someone’s hand is to compel them to act prematurely or involuntarily. 7. Having a free hand is being given wide latitude about how to carry out a task or responsibility. 8. To gain the upper hand is to obtain control. 9. To get your hands dirty is to engage in a important activity that may not be pleasant. 10. To give a hand is to help, though it also refers to applauding by clapping one’s hands. 11. To give a guiding hand is to offer advice or mentorship. 12. Something that goes hand in hand with something else is closely associated with it. 13. To be in good, or safe, hands is to be assured that you will be taken care of. 14. To hand something down is to offer it to an heir, or to deliver a decision. 15. To hand in something is to deliver it. 16. To work hand in glove is to work together intimately. 17. To hand something off is to pass it along to someone else, with the connotation of delegating it. 18. To hand something on is to pass it along to someone else in succession. 19. To hand something out is to offer it to recipients. 20. To hand something over is to deliver it to someone in authority, perhaps reluctantly or unwillingly. 21. To earn money hand over fist is to do so quickly. 22. To hand something to somebody on a platter (often a silver one) is to enable them to achieve something without effort. 23. To hand something up is to present it to a higher authority, such as grand jury to a judge. 24. To win hands down is to do so conclusively. 25. To be hands-off is to distance oneself from an activity or project. 26. To be hands-on is to directly involve oneself in an activity or project. 27. To have blood on one’s hands is to be culpable for an act. 28. When you tell someone you have to hand it to them, you’re giving them a compliment. 29. To have your hands full is to be busy. 30. To act with a heavy hand is to do so harshly or with too much force. 31. A heavy-handed gesture or action is one that is lacking in subtlety. 32. When the left hand doesn’t know what the right hand is doing, it means that communication among associates is poor. 33. To lend a hand is to assist. 34. To know something like the back of one’s hand is to know it thoroughly. 35. To live from hand to mouth is to be poor. 36. To be an old hand is to be familiar with or to be an expert at something. 37. To say that something is on hand is to indicate that it is available. 38. â€Å"On the other hand† is a synonym for however or â€Å"by contrast.† 39. To overplay your hand is to try too hard to achieve an objective, resulting in failure or complication. 40. Something that gets out of hand has gone out of control. 41. To play into someone’s hands is to be manipulated by an opponent into doing something advantageous to that person and detrimental to yourself. 42. â€Å"Put your hands up† is a command by law enforcement personnel directing someone to raise their hands so that they are in clear view and not likely to reach for a weapon. 43. To raise one’s hand is to lift an arm to indicate that one wishes to volunteer to perform a task or respond to a question. 44. A show of hands is a display of raised hands by those in a group in favor of or opposed to a proposal. 45. To take someone by the hand is to lead or nurture them. 46. To take the law into your own hands is to seek to right or avenge a wrong yourself rather than appeal to law enforcement for assistance. 47. To throw your hands up is to figuratively acknowledge defeat or frustration. 48. To be underhanded is to be deceitful. 49. To wash your hands of something is to absolve yourself of responsibility. 50. To say â€Å"When one hand washes the other† (the implied conclusion to the phrase is â€Å"and together they wash the face†) is to suggest that cooperation encourages success. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Because Of" and "Due To" Best Websites to Learn English30 Words Invented by Shakespeare

Marketing Planing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Marketing Planing - Essay Example The objective of the company is to offer the employees a congenial atmosphere to work and customers a wide range of drinks which can satisfy their needs. Some of the main objectives of the company are to lay emphasis on the needs of the customers and develop innovative products. Presently, the company offers 3500 products in more than 200 countries (Coca Cola, 2013a). The company tries innovative methods to develop core products which can suit the taste buds of the customers and provide satisfaction (Coca Cola, 2013b). Presently, the company manufactures carbonated beverages in various flavours, juices, bottled water and sports drink (Coca Cola, 2013h). Marketing Planning Changes & Assessing Capability Marketing Planning is a method to develop plans which can identify and satisfy customer needs and wants. The main elements of market planning are to conduct a market research to understand the customer requirements. Understanding customer requirements is essential to develop products a s per customer preference and specifications. After 70 years of success in developing cola drinks only in singular flavour the company decided to manufacture drinks in varied flavours to diversify their risk and yield profits from varied products. This was one of major breakthrough market planning initiatives by the company to manufacture beverages for a diversified customer base. The company started selling juices under the brand Minute Maid to portray itself as a healthy beverage manufacturer. The company also increased its availability in remote countries like Cambodia, Paraguay, Macau, Turkey and Montserrat. The first television advertisement for Coke appeared in the year 1970 which related the brands with friendliness and good times. In the year 1980 during the tenure of the chairman Mr. Roberto C. Goizueta the company started focusing more on manufacturing healthy beverages which would suit the taste bud of the consumers. During the 1980’s the company started manufactur ing sugar free and low sugar content drinks under the brand names â€Å"Diet Coke†. This decision was made to strengthen the brand image of the company. Mr. Roberto C. Goizueta also introduced a drink with a relatively new flavour under a new formula which was popularly termed as â€Å"New Coke†. However, coke started manufacturing drinks under the original formula to regain the customer and critic’s confidence. During the 1990’s the company started formulating a different strategy by associating itself with sports. The company associated itself with leading sports which were popular among the common masses. The company became one of the sponsors of FIFA, Rugby, and National Basketball Association etc to connect with a larger audience. The advertising and various other marketing strategies had a profound impact on the company’s earnings. Traditionally the company served 9 drinks per day compared to 1.7 billion servings per day presently (Coca Cola, 2013e). Thus, we can observe that the company had adapted to the changing marketing environment and had changed the marketing strateg

Australian Legal System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Australian Legal System - Essay Example What constitutes the common law is not so much actual decision in a particular case as the principles upon which that decision is based (Gifford & Gifford, 1983 p5). According to Corkery (1999, p105), all law is not judge made law and there is more and more codification in Australia now. The intention of the parliaments is to tidy up the law and replace the common law subsisting before the passing the code. Therefore, the most of new law is likely to reliance on legislation today. Under the Australian State Court Hierarchy, the courts can be categorized into three different types: the Magistrates Courts, the Distinct/County Courts and the Supreme Courts. The highest judicial tribunal in Australia is the high Court and mainly deal with constitutional challenges, however one thing should be noted that the High Court can overruled the previous decision. Under the doctrine of precedent, it does not have to follow the any previous decision made by the lower courts. In order to understand the current common law system, it is essential to know the advantages and disadvantages of doctrine of precedent relied on by the common law. Even if the Common law has described as emasculated form today, compare to the statute law, there must be weaknesses and strengths together rather than only weaknesses. According to Chisholm and Nettheim (1997, p46), common law is still remained as an essential method where nobody is sure what the law is, and where the occurred cases are quiet new. Decision should be made by Judges for these kinds of particular cases such as R v Elizabeth Manley [1933] 1 KB 529 (very uncommon case) because no similar case has ever been decided. The decisions of courts play a large part in determining and changing laws and this circumstance indicates the importance of common law. In addition, Victoria law foundation (2007) stated that the most of trials nowadays are having precedents and these good precedents are making the law more consistent, because earlier judicial decision guided judges in later similar cases. Besides, a judge today must apply the reasoning used in the precedents made in higher courts when they decide a similar case. Both factors reinforce the doctrine of precedent operation as its strength. Another advantage of doctrine of precedent stated by Bird (1993, p268), using the system of doctrine of precedent could additionally be good enough to save time and resources. As mentioned above, it provides not only a guideline to narrow the decision against the 'palm tree' justice, but also offer an opportunity to save time and resources. On the contrary, precedent operation of the common law needs to be more flexible to overcome its weaknesses. In modern society, flexibility tends to be one of the most important criteria, because yesterday's solutions might not be good enough to adapt for the rapid social changes. Chisholm and Nettheim (1997, p46) argued that the English or Australian system is sometimes criticised for tying the judges too much to the past. The case of Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562, by the time the judge made the decision, he has considered the social condition changed, the judge have developed the law of negligence which has benefits every customer, where Grant v Australian Knitting Mills Ltd

Macbeth and Shakespeare Essay Example for Free

Macbeth and Shakespeare Essay This quote â€Å"god defend me from my friends but ; from my enemies I can defend myself† means â€Å"gods help me from my friends but, I have the ability to defend myselfâ€Å". Two stories that I’ve read that support this quote are Macbeth by William Shakespeare and â€Å"The Cask Of Amontillado† by Edgar Allen Poe. I definitely agree with this quote because Macbeths friends thought they were really his friends but, they were wrong. Macbeth by William Shakespeare shows literary devices and they support my opinion of this quote. One is dramatic irony and it proves this quote true for many reasons. It is true because Lady Macbeth shows betrayal against Duncan, the king of Scotland and Macbeth shows betrayal against all his friend, he was really using them and in the end he killed some of his â€Å"friends†. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth wanted to both kill Duncan all along, so they Planned it all out. Betrayal is what happened here, big time. The other literary device from the story that supports my opinion and makes this quote true is, Tradgeic Hero. Macbeth started out as a tradgeic hero and then throughout the story he also â€Å"betrays† all his friends, pretty much the same reason for the dramatic irony. He is just a great example of a tradgeic hero. The other story that supports my opinion is â€Å"The Cask Of Amontillado† by Edgar Allen Poe and the quote â€Å"God defend me from my friends but, from my enemies I can defend myself†. The two literary devices used are symbol and mood. Symbol makes this quote true in this story. This is true because montresor’s coat of arms which is the snake biting the foot that is crushing it. This represents montresor getting revenge on fortunato for his supposed insult. When they both walked through the catacombs , montresor describes his coat of arms in a descriptive way. The other literary device that is used in this short story is, mood. The mood is very important in the story. It has a lot of terror and fear in the setting which connects to the mood. This mood is created because of the setting which is the cave with the bones, dampness and darkness. This set a mood that is not so inviting. These two stories both concluded the meaning of the quote. They both had friends and enemies and betrayal against one another. The setting in â€Å"The Cask Of Amontillado† defiantly showed how they defended themselves. This is why I agree with this quote.

Cardinal Richelieu :: essays research papers

Cardinal Richelieu Cardinal Richelieu was born Armand Jean du Plessis in Paris in September of 1585. The name Richelieu came from the name of his family's estate. The du Plessis' were considered minor nobility and Armand's grandfather, Louis, secured their place in court through marriage to Francoise de Rochechouart, an important family at the time. Louis died young and left five sons, the second oldest of whom, Francois, was Richelieu's father. Francois also died young, leaving his family in dire financial straits due to some poor investments. As a child, Richelieu was sickly and unfortunately would suffer from various maladies for the rest of his life. Armand was extremely intelligent and at the age of nine was sent to College de Navarre in Paris. Originally, Armand was to have had a military career and his older brother Alphonse was to have a religious life, but Alphonse suffered mental problems so, at the age of seventeen, Armand began to study theology seriously, in order to keep the Bishopric in the family. Armand's mother had fought hard for this title and would not let it go easily. He took to his religious studies easily and because of his health problems was ideally suited to this life. In 1606 then Abbe Armand de Richelieu was appointed Bishop of Lucon and in 1622, Pope Gregory appointed him a Cardinal. Like his grandfather and father before him, serving the monarchy was very important to Richelieu. To this end he allied himself with Marie de Medici, the queen mother, and was appointed to the court as Secretary of State to foreign affairs in 1616. This position did not last long as Marie's favorite, Concino Concini, was assassinated; this caused a falling out between mother and son. The king, Louis XII, had decided to take a more direct hand in government at his time. For a time Richelieu was in disgrace but then king and his mother soon reconciled, which was good news for Richelieu. He was made Prime Minister under Louix XIII in 1624. He was dedicated to the supreme authority of the crown. At the time, there was political corruption galore, an independent nobility and problems with the Protestant Huguenots. Richelieu saw all of these things as impediments to his goals and through coercion, manipulation and oppression, set about changing things. In 1628, he defeated a Huguenot rebellion and although they were banned from military service, he allowed them to practice their religion.

Communication Needs

We all have a right to communicate and voice our opinions. If an individual's communication needs are not met, this means they are being deprived of their basic human rights. They will be unable to express themselves and communicate how they are feeling, what they want to do, what they need, etc. If individuals are unable to communicate their needs it will have an impact on their well-being, relationships with family, friends and other members of their community. Explain how own role and practice can impact on communication with an individual who has specific communication needs. In my role as a support assistant it is my duty to ensure that I work in a person-centred way to support, encourage and promote individuals to live independently. This includes treating them with respect and dignity. I speak clearly and not use any jargons, etc. I identify their preferred method of communication. It would be bad practice to not meet the individual's communication needs. The individual may not receive the correct support or assistance. They will be unable to share their views or concerns, or have a say in what happens to them or express how they feel or what they need.They may become frustrated, angry and isolated. They may also become depressed, feel undervalued and have a low self-esteem. Analyse features of the environment that may help or hinder communication Features that may hinder communication may include, poor lighting, lack of privacy, distraction, noise from TV/radio, people all talking at the same time, seating arrangements, not facing individual when talking to them, covering mouth, eating or chewing, talking too fast or too sow, poor ventilation, room too hot or cold. Features that may help communication may include, talking slowly, clearly and concisely, eliminating any background noise, turn TV/radio down or off, sitting individual where they can hear or see what is going on, facing the individual when talking to them, using flash cards, pictures, etc. , not covering mouth, eating or chewing, finding a quiet place to talk, making sure room is well ventilated and at a comfortable temperature Analyse reasons why an individual may use a form of communication that is not based on a formal language system The individual ay be from another country. They may not have been taught a formal language system. They may have developed a system that is easy for them to understand.They may have a hearing or sight impairment or have a learning disability or mental health issues. Identify a range of communication methods and aids to support individuals to communicate A range of communication methods and aids that support individuals to communicate include sign language, body language, interpreters, hearing aids, hearing loops, speech aids, minicom, writing, drawing, pictures, objects, symbols, etc. Describe the potential effects on an individual of having unmet communication needs Unmet communication needs means that the individual is being deprived of their basic human rights. They will not be able to voice their concerns or opinions. The individual may develop mental health problems and may become depressed, frustrated, angry and isolated. This will also have an effect on their relationship with family and friends. Explain how and when to access information and support about identifying and addressing specific communication needs. It is important to take action as soon it has been identified that an individual has specific communication needs. You should establish what the needs are. Talk to the individual, their family, friends or others who are may support the individual to find out how to meet identified needs. Information can be sort from relevant support groups, social services or other professionals with experience in a specific area of communication. The individual's GP can also make a referral to a consultant specialising in the relevant field. Identify specialist services relating to communication technology and aids There is a range of communication technology aids available, including devices known as Voice Output Communication Aids (VOCA) and Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC). VOCA are dedicated to communication and may not have any computer functions. AAC devices are either symbol or text based. There are also communication software that can be added to a computer, mobile phone or PDA to enable a person to type what they want to say and play it back so others can hear what was typed. Describe types of support that an individual may need in order to use communication technology aids The device/equipment should be personalised to meet the individual's need and set up correctly. The individual and others supporting them should receive training on how to use the device. The individual should be supported to ead and understand the instructions and to follow any health and safety advice on how to use the device correctly. Explain the importance of ensuring that communication equipment is correctly set up and working properly It is important to ensure that the equipment is set up correctly and working properly otherwise it would be a waste of time and money as the individual's communication needs would still not be met. There could also be health and safety issues if the equipment is not set up or used correctly.

The 19th Century American Art described Naturalism as

The 19th Century American Art described Naturalism as: Life imitating nature and the artists of this period began focusing on â€Å"real life† situations.   Naturalism literature began to flourish after the civil war and after the most loved Romanticism and Victorian literature.   Naturalism focuses on the lower to middle class man in which he is a futile figure of a domineering universe of a hostile nature.   Some sort of struggling for the fittest and the strong and predestined are the only sure winner.The Ambrose Bierce story at Owl Creek Bridge is told by a third party narrator. For a simple reason that a man who is dead cannot narrate his own death?   It says nothing more of a man named Peyton Fahrquhar, a planter from a respected Alabama family; the author even distinguishes him as a gentleman which befits his physical appearance.   Despite of the man’s description, the person in the story seemed to die a futile death giving stress on the character of na turalism to which man is unimportant as quoted by the narrator below:†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"he   . . original secessionist   Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ devoted to the Southern cause. Circumstances of an imperious nature, which it is unnecessary to relate here, had . . . .army which had fought the disastrous campaigns †¦ (Bierce, 2004)Cynical, skeptical or mocking characteristics is vividly present along these lines,â€Å"To be hanged and drowned,† he thought, â€Å"that is not so bad; but I do not wish to be shot. No; .. not be shot; that is not fair.†(Bierce, 2004)The story dealt more on the agonizing death of a person but it was more descriptive than sentimental.   It is an unwanted way of dying and yet there is no reason to stop it.The entire theme below is focused on someone who has experienced a few moments of life before death and another few moments after dying.   His soul seemed to search and in a way could not even tell he is really dead. The story of the life of Peyton is a step by step narrative about the ironies of violent death, as if a man could account of his own dying which can be paraphrased:â€Å"To die of hanging at the bottom of a river! — the idea seemed to him ludicrous. He opened his eyes in the darkness †¦above him a gleam of light, but how inaccessible! He was still sinking, for the light became fainter †¦.mere glimmer.†(Bierce, 2004)â€Å"His neck ached horribly; his brain was on fire, his heart, – fluttering faintly, gave a great leap, trying to force itself out at his mouth. His whole body was –   wrenched with an insupportable anguish! â€Å"(Bierce) 2004.The two lines below were skillfully drawn by the author and I must say that he has expertly given the most significant characteristic to the story by defining life and imitating nature.   He uses the forest and trees, even the detail of a leaf and those that inhabits itincluding the morning dewdrops.   He described nature just as he des cribes a new life that is to be unfolding.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ the forest on the bank of the stream – trees, the leave ,, veining of each leaf — he saw the very insects †¦ noted the prismatic colors in all the dewdrops †¦million blades of grass. The –   gnats that danced..the eddies . . . the beating of the dragon flies' wings, the strokes – water spiders' legs, like oars which had lifted their boat — all these made audible music.†(Bierce)2004.â€Å"A fish slid along beneath his eyes and he heard the rush of its body parting the water.†(Bierce) 2004.This brief sentence above almost completed the story the author wanted to conclude, that death has come and the heavens could be so near.   As if describing that the soul came out from the eye and it moves thru the waters.   Bierce in his few words was able to describe a real life situation which is one of the most interesting characteristic of a naturalistic piecework.  Ã‚   Tha t after life naturally comes death.â€Å"Peyton Fahrquhar was dead; his body, with a broken neck, swung gently from side †¦beneath the timbers of the Owl Creek bridge.†(Bierce) 2004.Though the whole work is a literary genius, it leaves a mark of pessimism on the part of the reader. Pessimism in the sense that the character of the story was never given a chance. He was doomed simply because of a circumstance that is beyond the control of the person being told.   There was no hope but a dream or it could be real that the character’s soul transcended only to be able to look for his love ones. Even in this scene we can see that there is a big division.   There is desire to be with someone and yet the story emphasizes more on losing. The sad part of it is for an observer to have an impression that not all prayers are answered and an urgent question that need to be asked – where is God why did he allowed such fate?REFEENCES:Bierce,   2004 A. An Occurrence A t Owl Creek Bridge [Electronic Version]. Retrieved 24 September 2007 from

8 Resume Tips for Landing an Hourly Position

8 Resume Tips for Landing an Hourly Position Having a resume is necessary to get an hourly job, so knowing how to write a concise resume that highlights your qualifications can  get your foot in the door for that all-important first interview. A great resume is more than a mere list of positions you’ve held and your duties in those jobs. It is the way a job  seeker advertises him- or herself. Knowing what are the best practices for a resume is very important at helping you write your own. Here are a few tips on how to write a resume that stands out and will lead to a job offer. 1. Order is ImportantWhether you’re looking at part-time jobs or want a job full time, write your  resume in the same manner. Start off with your name and contact information, including phone number and email address, and check periodically to ensure that this information is current.Then, the first few sentences are your chance to  talk about qualities and achievements. Instead of using tired attributes such as â€Å"problem solver † or â€Å"creative talent,† connect your positive qualities with your work experience to show how you were an asset to the company.Finally, follow this with your skills and experience and list your education at the end.2. Highlight with Bullet PointsBullet points make a resume more easily scannable and help break up areas of text. By using bullet points, a hiring manager can quickly see if you are qualified for a job. Use a capital letter to begin each bullet point and, if you are writing in complete sentences, end with a period.3. Use Active VoiceUsing action verbs, such as planned, managed, or led, are words that are more easily noticeable and can make more impact with the hiring manager. Use present tense verbs for a job you currently hold and past tense for previous jobs.4. Don’t Include All JobsHiring managers are not interested in what jobs you held in high school, unless you are perhaps a recent college graduate and have a short resume. In this case, addi ng those summer jobs or volunteer work might show that you have a good work ethic and will be seen in a positive light. In other cases, include the most recent jobs in the last 10 or 15 years. This helps keep your resume short and makes it more likely the hiring manager will read it.5. Simple is BetterUsing colors, fancy fonts, and decorations is frowned upon;  this type or resume may end up on the bottom of the applicant pile. Hiring managers are looking for serious applicants and might  consider decorative resumes as frivolous. In addition, use a font that can be easily read.6. Be HonestBe honest about your education and work experience. Employers frequently check on employees, even after they are hired. If you don’t tell the truth on an application, you may not be keeping that job. If you apply for a job without the proper education, use your experience and training to show you can do the job.7. Check Spelling and GrammarIf you’re  applying for a job with a re sume that contains errors in spelling or grammar, you’re  less likely to be called for an interview. Proofreading your resume and using a spell-checker before finalizing  it  can help avoid errors.8. Leave Out Irrelevant InformationDon’t include hobbies, politics, religion, or family information on your resume. In addition, character references are unnecessary. If the hiring manager is interested in references, he or she will ask for them.Writing a good resume makes it easier to get a job when searching for part-time jobs or a full- time position. After writing a resume, the job search can begin. TheJobNetwork makes job hunting easier for all types of employment. After you enter your job interests and qualifications, we work around the clock to send you job alerts as soon as they appear. Sign up for job match alert so you don’t miss any opportunities to get hired for just the job you want.

Formula Mass (Weight) Versus Molecular Mass

Formula Mass (Weight) Versus Molecular Mass Fomula mass and molecular mass are two values that express the size of a molecule. Do you know the difference between formula mass and molecular mass?The formula mass (formula weight) of a molecule is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in its empirical formula. The molecular mass (molecular weight) of a molecule is its average mass as calculated by adding together the atomic weights of the atoms in the molecular formula. So, since the definitions differ according to whether you are using the empirical formula or molecular formula for a molecule, its a good idea to understand the distinction between them. The molecular formula indicates the type and number of atoms in a molecule. The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6, which indicates that one molecule of glucose contains 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen, and 6 atoms of oxygen. The empirical formula is also known as the simplest formula. It is used to indicate the mole ratio of elements present in a compound. The empirical formula of glucose would be CH2O. The formula mass and molecular mass of water (H2O) are one and the same, while the formula and molecular mass of glucose are different from each other. The formula mass (formula weight) of glucose is 30 (either no units or else grams per mole), while the molecular mass (molecular weight) is 180.156 g/mol. Whenever you see a molecular formula where you can divide the subscripts by a whole number (usually 2 or 3), you know to expect the formula mass will be different.

Literary theory and literary criticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Literary theory and literary criticism - Essay Example These different lenses allow critics to consider works of art based on some assumptions within that school of theory. In addition, these lenses enable critics on particular aspects of work they consider vital. For instance, a critic working on Marxist theory might focus on how the characters in a story interact based on their economic situation; while a critic working on post-colonial theory might consider the same story but look at how characters from colonial powers treat those from the colonies (Makaryk, 77). Over time, different literature schools of literary criticism have developed, each with its own approaches to the act of reading (Davis, 66). New criticism assumes that the literary work is autonomous. This autonomy is a concept that can be explicated so as to discover its organic unity and the relationship between medium and message. Although critics, philosophers, authors and educators have been writing since ancient times, contemporary schools of literary theory have coher ed from these discussions and now influence how scholars look at and write about literature. This section focuses on the focuses on the major schools of literary criticism (Davis, 98). 1) Formalist approach Formalist approach was developed as a response to the 19th century confusion that marked the work of literature and biography, morality or philosophy (Culler, 109). It entails an explicit look at the components of a work which helps an individual to enter a text even if the he does not agree with the method’s aesthetic, apolitical, disinterested, reserved judgment concerning the content. This is a literacy criticism method that not only applies to texts but also to movies (Culler, 19). The following is the basic structure of analyzing a literary content using formalist approach, specifically through answering these basic questions: a) Plot, narrative line and plain sense Is there any action? How important is the action and why? What is the nature and significance of the ac tion? Is the overall structure of the movie appropriate to the content? And is the action compressed, large and diffuse or episodic? What is the basic plot structure? Is it melodramatic, dramatic, impasse, linear or a variation or a combination or assault on these forms? And why? How is the conflict created? What is the nature of the conflict? Why? What is the meaning of the story line? Is the plot probable or plausible? b) Character (s) What is the motivation structure of the character? What roles are played by the minor characters, if any? Are the characters individuals or types? Why? Is there existence of character contrasts or parallels? c) Special effects Who tells the story? Is there a characteristic use of language? What is the language of the author? General, plain, metaphorical, precise, effusive, repetitious, economical, realistic and naturalistic? What role is played by the setting, physical description or dramatic scene play? Is there an existence of deep structure such as mythic or archetypal modes that underlies the surface of the work? d) Emotional effects What emotional effects occur? To what extend? What is the relationship of the emotional response to the plot or situation and characters 2) Reader-Response Criticism The literary criticism theory was developed in the early 1960s and has been applicable up to the present. The most known proponents of this theory include; Peter Rabinowitz, Stanley Fish, Elizabeth Freund, David Bleich, Normal Holland, Louise Rosenblatt, Wolfgang Iser and Hans Rober Jauss (Davis, 22). Basically, reader-response criticism considers readers/viewers reaction to literature as vital to interpreting the meaning of

Solar power Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

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The First Opium War 1 question - Coursework Example This paper explores the first opium war and the role of the Western powers in spreading and controlling the use of opium in China and other regions in the period. â€Å"During the nineteenth century Great Britain led the Western powers in ‘opening’ China to trade and Christian proselytizing† (Tyner, 2006, p. 25). The trade inequity between the two nations favored China. Britain bought enormous quantities of tea from China, but offered less woolens to the Chinese. This led the Chinese to require transactions to be settled in silver bullion. In a bid to overturn the trade imbalance, Britain started importing opium into China. By 1817, Britain was trading opium for tea in order to offset their trade deficit with China. The Qing government initially permitted the importation of opium by Britain because it encouraged more export of tea from China to England, while creating an indirect tax for the Chinese citizens. Opium was grown in Indian cotton growing regions under the control of British East India Company (Bengal), which traded opium for tea, in China (Ramirez-Faria, 2007). Britain began trading in opium in 1781 with their opium trade growing immensely between 1821 and 1837. The British facilitated the influx of opium in China and other regions by importing large quantities of the commodity to China. In 1834, Free Trade revolutionists ended the monopoly of the British East India Company, which shifted trade into the hands of private merchants and entrepreneurs (Perdue, 2010). Americans brought in Turkish opium, which was of poor quality but cheaper. As such, there was price war leading to low price, but higher sales of opium. Consequently, the Chinese officials stepped in to intercept the transportation of the commodity into China (Tyner, 2006). In order to stop opium from flooding China, a Chinese officer, Lin Zexu, appointed in

Evolution Of The Principle Of Comparative Advantage Economics Essay

Evolution Of The Principle Of Comparative Advantage Economics Essay From the early 19th century, new outlooks on trade theory have influenced how countries have engaged in production. One of the most significant developments in this area was that of comparative advantage. Comparative advantage refers to the ability of a country to produce one good at a lower opportunity cost than another. Comparative Advantage argues that all countries will gain from trade, even those that are relatively inefficient in the production of goods. All countries will gain, even those with an absolute disadvantage in the production of all goods, as opposed to with Absolute Advantage, which refers to the ability of a country to produce one good at a lower opportunity cost than another. In this essay, I intend to discuss how the theory of comparative advantage has come into being, from its inception in the early 1800s, through the neo classical period and into the modern era. This discussion will look at the variations on the theory proposed by some of the leading economists in the field of international trade, and how they viewed and expanded upon the original law of comparative advantage. In looking at how the law has developed over the past two centuries, my aim is to show the principles uses in describing how international trade is conducted to this day. In the latter sections of the essay, I will refer to empirical evidence that tests if comparative advantage predicts accurately patterns of international trade. Comparative Advantage Adam Smith illustrated an early understanding of the benefits that could be gained by focusing on the production of goods that the population was most efficient at producing: If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our own industry, employed in a way in which we have some advantage (Smith,1776,295). This idea demonstrated Smiths understanding of the concept of absolute advantage, whereby gain is realised in exchange between two men who are superior in the production of one good. The principle of comparative advantage was first presented in the work of Robert Torrens in his 1815 Essay on the External Corn Trade, where Torrens discussed Absolute Advantage in substantial detail and explained how it was beneficial for a country to engage in trade for a commodity even if the host country could produce the same good at a lower actual cost than the country it was trading with. However, it is David Ricardo who is widely credited with the first complete formulation of the theory of comparative advantage in 1817. Ricardo recognised that absolute advantage was only a limited version of a more general theory. His early understanding of the theory of comparative advantage is displayed in the quote: Two men can both make shoes and hats, and one is superior to the other in both employments; but in making hats he can only exceed his competitor by one-fifth or 20 per cent; and in making shoes he can excel him by one-third or 33 per cent: will it not be in the interest of both that the superior man should employ himself exclusively in making shoes, and the inferior man in making hats? (Ricardo,1817, p136). The assumptions in his reasoning can be seen in Kemp Okawas review of the formulation of comparative advantage, where they set out a model in which both countries are initially autarkical, then subsequently open up to a free trade environment, that all countries have at their disposal the potential to produce all possible commodities, and that in a state each country involved is able to consume all of these commodities. (2006,468). John Aldrich was recorded as saying, Torrens, Ricardo and Mill all made contributions to the discovery of comparative advantage, not by a major multiple discovery but through a sequence of insights and arguments (Aldrich, 2004, 379). James Mill studied and subsequently ratified Ricardos view on the existence and viability of comparative advantage in 1821 when he said When two men have more than they need, it will be a great accommodation to both if they can perform an exchange of a part of the food of the one for a part of the cloth of the other, and so in other cases (1821,63). In his treatment of the principle, he provided one of the clearest explanations and examinations of the workings of comparative advantage, rectifying much of the ambiguity of Ricardos exposition. His work enhanced the status of the principle of comparative advantage in economic circles by illustrating its viability through the use of numerous numerical examples. John Stuart Mill, son of James Mill, studied and subsequently made refinements to the theorem introduced by his father. Through his work, comparative advantage gained more universal acceptance as an explanation of the benefits of trade in the mid 19th century. He was responsible for the rational reconstruction of Ricardo in which the labour cost coefficients were interpreted as the amounts used in each unit of a good produced rather than Ricardos labour cost of producing the amounts contained in a typical trading bundle'(Ruffin,2002,727-748). Some of Mills most prominent work in the field of comparative advantage can be seen in his 1844 Theory of international values which aided the economic community to come to a fuller understanding and appreciation of the centrality of comparative cost in trade theory (Gomes,2003). In 1930, Gottfried Haberler of the neo-classical school of economics provided a modern interpretation of the theory of comparative advantage which generalised and separated it from David Ricardos labour theory of value, helping to form the foundations of modern trade theory. Haberler believed that it was possible to reformulate the theory in such a way that its analytical value and all conclusions drawn from it are preserved, rendering it at the same time entirely independent of the labor theory of value (Bernhofen,2005,998). His work indicated that comparative advantage is about resource allocation, and adapted it into a more general principle that accommodated non-linear production frontiers. Kemp and Okawa state that Haberler indicated that the relative opportunity costs of producing determines both the direction of free international trade and the manner in which gains from this trade are shared by trading partners (2006,1). The next significant progression in the development of the theory was through the work of two Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin. Their theory examined the reasons behind the differences in comparative costs. The Heckscher-Ohlin model introduced new ideas which differed from the classical approach. Factors of production are taken into account for the first time, of which the two primary ones were labour and land (Eicher, Mutti Turnovsky,2009,68). The theory explains how countries of similar technological levels can trade, how trade affects the distribution of wealth in the economy and how growth in an economy affects trade. Their model was based on two assumptions. Firstly; that countries would no longer differ in terms of technology, but rather by their endowment of factors of production. This meant that countries would be concerned with relative differences in labour and capital abundances compared to their trading partner. The second assumption was that goods differ by the factors of production they require. They explained that the more abundant a factor of production was, the greater the likelihood that it would be cheaper to produce their specialised goods and hence, the opportunity cost of producing goods which were reliant on this factor would be lower in other words, that the source of comparative advantage resided in the factor endowments of a country (Viner,1937). This implies that countries would have a comparative advantage in producing goods that their abundant factor of production. For example, countries with an abundant supply of labour would reap the greatest benefits by focusing their specialism on labour intensive products. The benefits of the H-O theory compared to the theory of comparative advantage were that: it offered; a better means of explaining observed trade patterns, the ability to develop implications about how trade affects wages and returns on capital, it shows the economic growth on trade and it offers a more thorough explanation of political groups on trade. A further development of H-O theory was the Stolper-Samuelson theorem which shows that the owners of scarce/abundant factors are disadvantaged/benefited when an economy opens up for trade and specializes in the production of the good that is intensive in its use of the abundant factor a discovery that was beneficial in the understanding of the politics behind free trade and protectionism. The theory states that during increase in the price of an abundant factor and the fall in the price of the scarce factor, and that the owners of the abundant factor will find their incomes rise the owners of the scarce resource will see their real incomes fall. Rogoff states that their paper was the first to demonstrate the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem in a two good, two country, two factor (labour and capital) model. The H-O theorem shows that with identical technologies at home and abroad, the country with the larger endowment of labour relative to capital should export the labour intensive good. This advancement of the theory aided the thinking about trade between countries with widely different capital-labour ratios. (Rogoff,2005,8). Chipman and Inoue state that for their theory, the following assumptions are made: 1. All trade takes place in a free trade environment, with no transport costs attached. 2. The factors of production, labour and capital, are freely mobile between industries within countries, while at the same time being immobile between countries. 3. The production functions neoclassical and constant over time. 4. The endowment of labour in each country is constant over the two periods (2001,2). Contemporary research by economists such as Helpman Krugman (1985) adapts traditional comparative advantage theory by relaxing some of the assumptions that underlie the contemporary specification of the principle, such as economy of scales and product differentiation. Nowadays, the comparative advantage theory can be further developed by including new aspects, such as specialization, technological differences and aspects of game theory (Tian, 2008). Comparative advantage may appear to be somewhat paradoxical, in the sense that it states that, under a certain set of conditions, a country should produce and export a good that its workforce is not particularly skilled at producing when compared directly to the workforce of another country. However, it holds true when it is explained that when two countries who each hold a comparative advantage in a particular good engage in trade with one another, trade between these nations raises both of their real incomes, on the condition that there is a relative gap between the costs of the same types of products in production by the countries engaging in trade. Ricardos model shows that, if a country wants to maximise gain, it must strive to fully employ all of its resources. It should then allocate its resources to each these resources to its comparative advantage industries, and subsequently, it should aim to operate in a free trade environment, which will benefit all trading partners invol ved. It can be seen how comparative advantage is still a useful and important concept in explaining international trade. Jones and Neary conferred their opinion on the ongoing validity of the theory: While the principle of comparative advantage may thus be defended as a basic explanation of trade patterns, it is not a primitive explanation, since it assumes rather than explains inter-country differences in autarkic relative prices (Reinert, Rajan Glass,2009,199). Revealed comparative advantage is an index devised by Bella Balassa used to calculate the relative advantage or disadvantage a country may have in a specific class or category of goods or services. This advantage can be assessed through analysing trade flows. The index attempts to uncover a revealed comparative advantage by assessing the countrys specialism in exports in relation to others. It is a highly useful means of assessing how useful Comparative advantage is in explaining contemporary trade patterns. A large number of empirical tests of comparative advantage have been undertaken to test the theory of comparative advantage. MacDougall tested the hypothesis that the export ratios of two countries to a third market were a function of labour productivity ratios of the two countries in question. The results were supportive of the Ricardian model, and his work demonstrated that trade between the United States and the United Kingdom in 1937 followed Ricardos prediction. CONCLUSION Throughout this essay, it can be seen how the ideas forged in the original theory of comparative advantage have eminently formed a large part of the basis for understanding how international trade is conducted today. Since its advent, attaining a comparative advantage has been heavily reliant on recognising and exploiting the natural resources and competencies that are present within a country. Even to this day, countries specialise their economies depending on the factors of production that enable them to produce most efficiently, all the while recognising that holding a comparative advantage is a cornerstone of effective trade practices. In the modern era and most likely in the coming years, comparative advantage is likely to continue to become an increasingly more man made factor, with the utilisation of new technologies resulting in the likelihood of significantly increasing production efficiency, and thus affecting the areas on which a country holds an absolute and comparative advantage. Although the original theory of comparative advantage may not subscribe to the current economic environment, it is still a relevant means of determining the most beneficial trading strategy for a countrys economy. Adaptations to the theory since its inception have facilitated the continued utilisation of the idea in the current climate. According to Gale, the changes that have taken place over time are a product of globalisation, for example, new trade barriers and changes in agricultural policy have caused a decrease in some countries manufacturing prowess and has resulted in a subsequent reduction in its comparative advantage (2002,27). The current trend of globalization means that the assumptions associated with comparative advantage are becoming increasingly more difficult to apply.  Ã‚  Despite this, it is still a relevant means of describing international trade patterns today and the ways in which a country can best exploit its natural endowment of resources. To reinforce this point, Paul Samuelson has stated that comparative advantage is the only law of economics which can stand comparison with the laws generated by hard sciences. Modern conditions may cloud our law but, suitably qualified, it still holds (Gray,2000,316). Through my research into the growth of comparative advantage from its inception, I believe that the concept still aptly demonstrates the fundamental importance of the effects, determinants and nature of international trade. Bibliography Aldrich J, Journal of the History of Economic Thought, Volume 26, Number 3, September 2004 (pg 396) (26, 3, 379-399) Bernhofen, Daniel M. (2005), Gottfried Haberlers 1930 Reformulation of Comparative Advantage in Retrospect,   Review of International Economics; Nov2005, Vol. 13 Issue 5, p997-1000, 4p Calhoun, Craig and Gerteis, Joseph (2007) Classical Sociological Theory, Blackwell Publishing Chipman, John S and Inoue, Tadashi (2001), Intertemporal Comparative Advantage, I *(pg. 2) http://www.econ.umn.edu/~jchipman/econ8402f05/INTERTMP.PDF Eicher, Theo S., Mutti John H. and Turnovsky Michelle H (2009), International Economics, Routledge; 1 edition, (pg. 68) Faulkner, David and Segal-Horn, Susan (2004), The economics of international comparative advantage in the modern world, European Business Journal; 2004 1st Quarter, Vol. 16 Issue 1, p20-31, 12p. Gale, Fred (2002) Chinas Food and Agriculture: Issues for the 21st Century / AIB-775, Economic Research Service/USDA (pg27) Gomes, Leonard (2003), The economics and ideology of free trade: a historical review, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd Gray, H (2000) A Review of Maneschi, Andrea, Comparative Advantage in International Trade: A Historical Perspective, International Trade Journal; Fall2000, Vol. 14 Issue 3, p315-320, 6p Kemp, Murray C., and Okawa Masayuki (2006), The Torrens-Ricardo principal of Comparative Advantage: An Extension Review of International Economics, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 466-477, August 2006 Maneschi, Andrea (1998) Comparative advantage in international trade: a historical perspective (pg52) Mill, James (1821), Elements of Political Economy, London: Henry G. Bohn   chapter III, pg63 Reinert, Kenneth A., Rajan, Ramkishen S. and Glass, Amy Jocelyn (2009), The Princeton encyclopedia of the world economy, Vol 2, Princeton University Press Rogoff, Kenneth (2005), Paul Samuelsons Contributions to International Economics Harvard University, pg 8 http://www.economics.harvard.edu/files/faculty/51_Samuelson.pdf Ruffin, Roy J. (2002) History of Political Economy; Winter2002, Vol. 34 Issue 4, p727-748, 22p Smith Adam (1776) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Hackett Publishing Company Inc. Book IV, Chapter III (IV.3.33) The evolution of the comparative advantage argument for free trade. http://www.econ.ku.dk/kgp/doc/Lectfrms/evolution%20of%20comparative%20advantage.pdf Tian, Yiqian (2008), A New Idea about Ricardos Comparative Advantage Theory on Condition of Multi-Commodity and Multi-Country International Journal of Business and Management Vol.3, No. 12, December 2008 Viner, Jacob (1937), Studies in the Theory of International Trade, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, Chapter VIII Introduction In the course of this essay, I intend to outline the development of the principle of the quantity theory of money, from its initial inception in the 16th century right up to the current outlook on the theory in the 21st century. Subsequently I hope to outline the theorys importance as a catalyst for the development of monetarism in the 20th century, and outline how monetarism has progressed since that point in time. The quantity theory of money provides a means of answering the question what gives money value? We know that intrinsically, a bank note is a valueless piece of paper and ink, and that its perceived value stems from the quantity of it in supply. Due to the value of money being variable, a change in money demand or supply will yield a change in the value of money and in the price level. The more money that is in circulation means that each individual bill becomes worth less. This will result in it taking more bills to purchase goods and services, and as a result, price level will increase accordingly. The quantity theory of money states that the value of money is based on the amount of money in the economy that the nominal money supply is a function of the equivalent changes in price levels as it relates to the demand for money necessary to meet the needs of current transactions. For example, in Ireland, according to the theory, when the central bank increases the money supply, the value of money falls and the price level increases. Main body The theory states that a one-time change in the stock of money has no lasting effect on real variables but will lead to a proportionate change in the money price of good. In other words, it declares that moneys value or purchasing power varies inversely with its quantity. To this day, there exists prevalent academic discussion as to who developed the theory. The first possible statement of the quantity theory of money originated in the work of Nicholaus Copernicus In 1526, when Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae cudendae ratio, in which he noted the increase in prices following the import of gold and silver from the new world. He expressed the findings of his studies into the value of money, and in this work, he formulated a version of the quantity theory of money. Copernicus observed that the value of money would fall if it was issued to excessive quantities, to the point where it was almost valueless. Volckart notes that Money can lose its value through excessive abundance, if so much silver is coined as to heighten peoples demand for silver bullion. For in this way, the coinages estimation vanishes when it cannot buy as much silver as the money itself contains. The solution is to mint no more coinage until it recovers its par value (1997,433). Jean Bodin took a different stance in the middle of the sixteenth century. In 1568, he drew attention to the influx of gold and silver into Spain, and consequently the rest of Europe, from the Americas. He argued that the price level had risen along with the stock of bullion available for monetary purposes and was able to draw a conclusion about the link between these events. John Locke accepted this idea and stated the Quantity Theory of Money as a general rule, that if the supply of money increased, the prices of all goods will rise. If money supply fell and the prices of goods fell, than the prices of foreign goods would rise relative to domestic goods both of which will keep us poor (Locke, 1692). The first concise statement about the existence of a quantity theory was that made by David Hume in 1752. His theory stated that the general level of prices depended upon the quantity of money currently in circulation. Where coin is in greater plenty; as a greater quantity of it is required to represent the same quantity of goods; it can have no effect, either good or bad that great plenty of money is rather disadvantageous, by raising the price of every kind of labour. (Hume, 1752, Pg 15) He also outlined the relationship between supply of money and prices All augmentation (of gold and silver) has no other effect than to heighten the price of labour and commodities; and even this variation is little more than that of a name (Hume, 1752, 296-7). Alfred Marshalls version of the quantity theory was an attempt to give microeconomic underpinnings to the macroeconomic theory that prices and the quantity of money varied directly. He did this by elaborating a theory of household and firm behaviour and integrating it with the macroeconomic question with the macroeconomic question of the general level of prices to explain the demand for money. Marshall reasoned that households and firms would desire to hold in cash balances a fraction of their money income In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, two versions of the theory competed. One advanced by the American economist Irving Fisher, treated the theory as a complete and self-contained explanation of price level. The other, propounded by the Swedish economist Knut Wicksell, saw it as part of a broader model in which the difference between market and natural rates of interest jointly determine bank money and price level changes. Fisher, in particular spent considerable effort in discussing the temporary effects during the period of transition separately from the permanent or ultimate effects (which) follow after a new equilibrium is established if, indeed, such a condition as equilibrium may be said ever to be established (Fisher,1911,p55-6). In this statement, he finds that the quantity theory will not hold true strictly during transition periods. His work was a forerunner in what would later become known as monetarism. He attempted to take the classical schools equation of exchange and convert it into a general theory of price and price level. The contrasts between the two approaches were striking. Fishers version was consistently quantity theoretic throughout and focused on the classical propositions of neutrality, money-to-price causality, and independence of money supply and demand. By contrast, Wicksells version contained certain elements seemingly at odds with the theory. These elements included a real shock explanation of monetary and price movements, the absence of currency in the hypothetical extreme case of a pure credit economy, and the identity between deposit supply and demand at all price levels in that same pure credit case rendering prices indeterminate. Wicksell tried to develop a theory of money that explained fluctuations in income as well as fluctuations in price levels. He argued that the quantity theory of money failed to explain why the monetary demand for goods exceeds or falls short of the supply of goods in given conditions. The quantify theory fell into disrepute in the 1930s, in part because it seemed at the time that the theory could not explain the Great Depression, and partly because of the publication in 1936 of Keyness theory. Although some economists continued to advocate the quantity theory, many economists became Keynesians and simply viewed the quantity theory as a historical curiosity. Only in the mid and late 1950s did the quantity theory once again emerge as a plausible rival to the Keynesian theory. There were several reasons for the revival. Contrary to the prediction of many Keynesians, upon the conclusion of World War II, the American economy did not revert to the depressed conditions of the 1930s, but instead underwent inflation. Secondly, one of the benefits of the Keynesian revolution had been its demonstration that by manipulating expenditures and taxes, governments can keep the economy close to full employment. In fact, it emerged that there were serious political as well as economic difficulties in actually changing government expenditures and tax rates in this ways, and that Keynesian theory in this area was less useful than it had been thought originally. However the resurgence of the quantity theory should not be attributed merely to impersonal historical events. It is also due to the fact that several influential economists advocated this theory. Don Patinkin of Hebrew University restated the quantity theory in a rigorous way that avoids many of the crudities that infested earlier expositions. Milton Friedman, of the University of Chicago was influential in providing a framework that allowed one to test empirically the proposition that changes in the quantity of money dominate changes in income. Moreover Friedman and Anna Schwartz of the National Bureau of Economic Research argued in a lengthy study that the experience of the Great Depression should be interpreted as confirming the prediction of the quantity theory rather than that of Keynesian theory. Subsequently they showed that in both the United States and Britain, longer run movements in nominal income were highly correlated with movements in the money stock. Despite the resurgence of the Quantity Theory in the 1970s and early 1980s it is still far from universally accepted by economists. Controversies about the theorys validity and applicability still exist, featuring similar questions and themes regarding the Quantity Theory of Money that have arisen since the 18th century. These include the definition of money, the relationship between correlation and causation, and the transmission mechanism. Controversy has continued because of the technical difficulty of sorting out the direction of causation running between money and prices, and because ideological concerns about the viability of market mechanisms are at stake. The first instance of Monetarism stems from the ideas of Irving Fisher. The ideas that produced the quantity theory of money go back to the time of David Hume, and arguably earlier. However, the equation of exchange and the transformation of the quantity theory of money into a tool for making quantitative analyses and predictions of the price level, inflation, and interest rates were due to the contributions of Irving Fisher. The theory provides a theoretical basis for monetarism, and there is empirical evidence to show that the quantity theory does operate. For example, as the Spanish brough gold back from the new world, the money supply increased in their native Spain. In line with the theory, prices rose because there was no corresponding increased in the transactions demand for money which is a function of an increase in output. This initial formulation of monetarism fell short on the question of understanding business cycle fluctuations in employment and output. Due to a flaws and a lack of sophistication of this first form of monetarism, some economists became disillusioned with monetarist analysis. One of these economists, John Maynard Keynes, stated that the quantity-theoretic analysis was of little use expanded on these initial contributions. Many economists agreed with Keyness evaluation of monetarism, most notably Milton Friedman. According to Friedman, there was a belief in the value provided by the quantity theory of money, the quantity theory of money provides the best way of understanding monetary behaviour (1971, 2-3), and that substantial changes in prices and nominal income are almost invariably the result of changes in the nominal supply of money (Friedman, 1968, 434). Following this, came the emergence of the Old Chicago Monetarism of Viner, Simons and Knight. This form of Monetarism emphasised the variability of velocity and its potential correlation with the rate of inflation. In economic policy they blamed monetary forces that caused deflation as the source of depression. According to Viner, in order to remedy economic depression, use of large scale stimulative monetary expansion, large government deficits or policies which encouraged deflation, should be balanced. The exponents of Old Chicago Monetarism did not believe that the velocity of money, in other words the rate at which money is exchanged from one transaction to another, was stable. They also did not believe that control of the money supply was straightforward or that the velocity of money was stable, because inflation lowered and deflation raised the opportunity cost of holding real balances. Classic monetarism emerged from Old Chicago Monetarism. It was described by Friedman in 1953, as well as in the works of Brunner (1968) and Brunner and Meltzer (1972). Classic Monetarism contained elements of institutional reform, analytical thinking and views on the political economy. J. Bradford De Long discusses how classic monetarism contained empirical demonstrations which showed that money demand functions could retain stability under the most extreme hyperinflationary conditions. It contained studies which analysed the limits imposed on stabilization policy by lags of policy instruments and also the belief that the natural rate of unemployment is close to the average rate of unemployment. (2000, 83-94). Political Monetarism argued not that velocity could be made stable if monetary shocks were avoided, but that velocity was in fact already stable. As a result, money stock emerged as a sufficient statistic for forecasting nominal demand. Political Monetarism argued that the central bank controlled shifts in the money supply. As a result, the view was taken that everything that went wrong in the macroeconomy was a direct result of the central bank failing to make the money supply grow at the appropriate rate. Political Monetarism concluded that any policy that does not affect the qu